Stainless steel has unique properties which can be taken advantage of in a wide variety of applications in the construction industry. This paper reviews how research activities over the last 20 years have impacted the use of stainless steel in construction. Significant technological advances in materials processing have led to the development of duplex stainless steel pipe with excellent mechanical properties; important progress has also been made in the improvement of surface finishes for architectural applications Structural research programmes across the world have laid the ground for the development of national and international specifications, codes and standards spanning both the design, fabrication and erection processes. Recommendations are made on research activities aimed at overcoming obstacles to the wider use of stainless steel in construction. New opportunities for stainless steel arising from the shift towards sustainable development are reviewed, including its use in nuclear containment structures, thin-walled cladding and composite floor systems.This paper seeks to summarise the recent technological advances in the stainless steel sheet which have had an impact on usage of stainless steel in construction. New applications which have emerged over the last 20 years are described. Areas of research needed to respond to current market and procurement challenges are discussed. Finally, new opportunities arising from the shift towards sustainable development are described.



and mechanical properties of the two widely used austenitic stainless steel coil, 1.4301 and 1.4401, with those of three duplex stainless steels. (The ferritics in the table are discussed in Sections 3 Expansion of construction applications over the last 20 years, 4 Research in response to market and procurement challenges.) Duplexes have tremendous potential for expanding future structural design possibilities, enabling a reduction in section sizes leading to lighter structures. It is worth noting that although they have good ductility, their higher strength results in more restricted formability compared to the austenitics.Between 1989 and 1992, SCI carried out a research project to develop European guidance in the areas of material selection, design, fabrication and maintenance to ensure the safe and proper application of steel in construction. The project included forming a properties database, materials tests, member and connections tests, analysis of results, design recommendations and worked examples. The resulting guidance was published by Euro Inox in 1994 as the Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel[7]. Subsequently the draft pre-standard Eurocode 3 Part 1.4, giving rules for the design of structural stainless steel pipe fittings, was published in 1996, closely based on the Design Manual.

The word glass comes from the Teutonic term “Glaza”, which means amber. Although the origin of glass production line is still uncertain, the Mesopotamians from the 5th century BC discovered an ash by chance when they fire to melt clay vessel to use for glazing ceramics or when copper was smelted. In Egypt, greenish glass beads were excavated in some of the Pharaohs’’ burial chambers dating from the early 4th century BC, and this has been referred to as intentional glass manufacture. From the second century BC, the production of rings and small figures by using core-wound techniques began to appear. The oldest blueprint for glass was made on clay tablets in 669-627 BC, which read: “Take 60 parts sand, 180 parts ash from marine plants, and 5 parts chalk”. This blueprint is now held in the great library of the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, in Nineveh. [1] was drawn off with a blowing iron, performed into a round shape, and then blown into a balloon. Blown cylinder sheet glass and crown glass remained two of the most important production techniques for producing glass furnace until the early 20th century. From the 17th century, glass usage was not only limited to churches and monasteries but it also started to be used for glazing palaces. High demand motivated glass-makers to develop new methods, and in 1687 the process of casting glass was invented by the Frenchman Bernard Perrot, in which the glass melt was poured onto a smooth preheated copper table and pressed onto a pane with a water-cooled metal roller. In this way, a glass pane of up to 1.20 x 2 m could be produced. Although this method made it possible to produce glass at a cheaper price, the use of glass windows was still expensive.le in portions and passed through two cooled roller to form a glass ribbon. In this way, a glass pane with the dimensions of 3 x 6m could be produced. In the 1950s, the Englishman Alastair Pilkington developed the hot end glass equipment, wherein viscous glass melt was passed over a bath of molten tin floating on the surface. Tin was used because of the high temperature range of its liquid physical state (232 to 2270°C) and having a much higher density then glass.



Another process for the production of flat glass is the cast process. In this process, cold end glass equipment is poured continuously between metal rollers to produce glass with the required thickness. The rollers can be engraved to give the required surface design or texture and produce patterned glass. The glass can be given two smooth surfaces, one smooth and one textured, or two textured sides, depending on the design. In addition, a steel wired mesh can be sandwiched between two separate ribbons of glass to produce wired glass. Wired glass can keep most of glass pieces together after breakage, and it is therefore usually used as fire protection glass.



Toughened glass is a kind of safety glass, which has a higher strength due to its residual stresses. It cannot be worked on any further (such as cutting or drilling) after the toughening process has been done [7]. Toughened glass is becoming more and more important as its range of applications grow. The main application of thermally toughened glass production processing line, automotive glass and some domestic glasses like Pyrex, while the main uses of chemically strengthened glass are as laboratory and aeronautical glass.

Food packaging is of high societal value because it conserves and protects food, makes food transportable and conveys information to consumers. It is also relevant for marketing, which is of economic significance. Other types of food contact articles, such as storage containers, processing equipment and filling lines, are also important for food production and food supply. Food contact articles are made up of one or multiple different food contact materials and consist of APIs and Intermediates. However, food contact chemicals transfer from all types of food contact materials and articles into food and, consequently, are taken up by humans. Here we highlight topics of concern based on scientific findings showing that food contact materials and articles are a relevant exposure pathway for known hazardous substances as well as for a plethora of toxicologically uncharacterized chemicals, both intentionally and non-intentionally added. We describe areas of certainty, like the fact that chemicals migrate from food contact articles into food, and uncertainty, for example unidentified chemicals migrating into food. Current safety 
It is clearly established by empirical data that FCCs can migrate from food contact materials and articles into food, indicating a high probability that a large majority of the human population is exposed to some or many of coenzymes and nucleotides series [3]. Indeed, for some FCCs there is evidence for human exposure from biomonitoring [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11], although some FCCs may have multiple uses and also non-food contact exposure pathways.



the fine chemicals, their permitted maximum concentration, either in the plastic food contact article or in food (i.e. specific migration limit) [26]. However, there are still many substances that are present in plastics and other materials as non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). Even though the EU regulations 10/2011 explicitly and EU 1935/2004 generally require a risk assessment of NIAS, there are many difficulties: first, identification of NIAS is very demanding [27] and, secondly, studying the effects on human health is often not possible because for example the chemicals are not available as pure substances or testing would be too expensive [1]. What is more, there is no regulatory requirement to assess toxic effects of the chemical mixtures migrating from food contact articles [1]. To summarize, we are concerned that current chemical risk assessment for food contact chemicals does not sufficiently protect public health.



Therefore, we would like to bring the following statement to the attention of policy makers and stakeholders, especially those currently working on the issue of packaging waste but not focusing on the chemical safety of food contact articles (Table 1). By mapping the challenges (Table 2), we aim to initiate a broader debate that also involves scientists with different expertise of relevance to the issue. Importantly, chemical safety must be addressed in two ways: e.g. (i) a discussion of how chemical safety is ensured, based on the current scientific understanding and e.g. (ii) a debate of the chemical safety of food packaging in the circular economy, which aims at minimizing waste, energy and resources use [28]. Therefore, we provide an overview of the most pressing challenges based on current scientific understanding. Ultimately, the public is to be protected from exposures to hazardous FCCs while at the same time the aims of the circular economy need to be achieved. To reach these goals, we think that there is a need to better inform decision making on future food packaging research and policy.
Chemicals can transfer from food contact materials and articles into food. This phenomenon is known as migration and has been studied since the 1950s [29,30,31,32,33]. All types of food contact materials may exhibit chemical migration, but the types of migrating Sitagliptin Phosphate Monohydrate CAS 654671-77-9 and their levels differ significantly. 



All migrating FCCs have inherent toxicity properties that can cause different effects at different doses and are related to the timing of exposure, mode of action, and other aspects. At the same time, levels of FCCs that humans are exposed to reflect their use (or presence) in a food contact article and are associated with its concentration in food. To evaluate the risk of a given chemical to human health, information on its inherent toxicity (i.e., its hazard) and the actual levels of exposure is needed.

Many of the chemicals that are intentionally used in the manufacture of food contact articles have not been tested for hazard properties at all, or the available toxicity data are limited [67]. Moreover, endocrine disruption, as a specific hazard of concern, is not routinely assessed for 2,4,5-Trifluorophenyl Acetic Acid CAS 209995-38-0 migrating from food contact articles, although some chemical migrants are known endocrine disruptors [73,74,75,76,77].

Not only is embarking on a daily craft decorations project a cosy way to spend a winter evening; handmade Christmas gifts are also a more sustainable way to tell your friends and family you love them and to decorate your home as the festivities get underway. 

After last year’s damp squib of a festive season, handmade gifts are also a heartfelt and meaningful way to tell your friends and family how much they mean to you as we’re (hopefully) reunited this Christmas.


Take a look at our list of daily use decorations ideas you can easily try your hand at – from decorations for your home and Christmas food and drinks to fun gift ideas. Rest assured, you won’t be making any old stocking fillers. All our guides will show you how to make trending and useful crafts, from stylish dried flower wreaths and Instagram-approved painted candles to collaged Christmas cards and festive sloe berry gin.



Whether you want to make traditional festive favourites to spread some cheer this season, or you’d prefer to home craft decoration fun items that your friends and family will be able to keep forever, there’s a craft on our list for you. 



From making your fireplace more festive to crafting one-of-a-kind ornaments and trimming your Christmas craft decorations, our holiday craft projects will help you creatively take your home from ho-hum to ho-ho-ho! Get crafting to deck out every area with DIY Christmas decorations that perfectly showcase your personal seasonal style.



‘I was quite interested in the hierarchy of materials, where plastic comes way down at the bottom,’ he explains. ‘I thought maybe there was some connection between that and the silly things we do with it, like using it for a few seconds and throwing it away. I figured if I applied the skills, understanding and time that easter craft decorations, it might unpack some other aspects of the material.’

Rather than having a rack filled with stock pot and pans of all shapes and sizes, owning a few well-chosen pieces will give you the flexibility to cook whatever you want and the performance you need to cook it better.

I polled some of our authors to find out which pans were the most valuable to them and why. I then came up with six pieces, starting with two indispensables: an anodized-aluminum stockpot to handle stocks, soups, stews, some sauces, blanching, boiling, and steaming; and a high-sided stainless-steel/aluminum sauce pan with a lid for frying, deglazing sauces, braising small items like vegetables, making sautés and fricassées, cooking rice pilafs and risottos, and a whole lot more. The other four pieces I picked make for even more cooking agility and add up to half a dozen ready-for-action pots and pans that you’ll really use (see For every pot, there’s a purpose…).

All good pans share common traits
In a well-stocked kitchen store, you’ll see lots of first-rate pots and deep fry pan. They may look different, but they all share essential qualities you should look for.



You get more heat. Mass holds heat (heat is vibrating mass, so the more mass there is to vibrate, the more heat there will be). The more grill pan there is to heat, the more heat the pan can hold, so there’s more constant heat for better browning, faster reducing, and hotter frying.

You’ll want handles and a lid that are sturdy, heatproof, and secure. Handles come welded, riveted, or screwed. Some cooks advise against welded handles because they can break off. But Gayle Novacek, cookware buyer for Sur La Table, has seen few such cases. As long as handles are welded in several spots, they can be preferable to riveted ones because residue is apt to collect around a rivet.


For sautéing and other cooking that calls for quick temperature changes, a pan should be responsive. This means that the fry pan is doing what the heat source tells it to, and pronto. For example, if you sauté garlic just until fragrant and then turn down the flame, the pan should cool down quickly so the garlic doesn’t burn. Responsiveness isn’t as crucial for boiling, steaming, or the long, slow cooking that stocks and stews undergo.



The volume expansion during the seasoning cycles is reversible. The diagrams and SEM images in Fig. 3(d–e) show the vertical formation and growth of Fe3O4 nanoballs. We can clearly determine that when an iron pan is seasoned at 450 °C, the smooth surface of the iron pan gradually becomes coarse during the first two cycles, and nanoballs begin to appear. Interestingly, the nanoballs shrink after the 3rd seasoning cycle (Fig. 3(d) and Fig. S2). For each seasoning cycle, the beef tallow first provides a low Po2 and then evaporates to provide a high Po2. During this process, the coordinate number of the surface iron atoms repeatedly changes between six and four. The formed Fe3O4 repeatedly shrinks and expands and finally large particles crack into small nanoballs.

Gun drilling is a process used to produce small-diameter holes at a high depth-to-diameter ratio, beyond what is capable using conventional tooling, especially for difficult-to-machine superalloys such as titanium, Inconel, Monel, etc. Presently, it often incapacitates by low productivity, rapid tool wear, frequent tool breakages, and straightness deviation. This chapter addresses the challenges of tackling these problems by employing game-changing approaches and technologies. Existing research in the advanced gun drilling technologies tends to focus on the choice of drilling parameters. There is little literature available for the cutting mechanics and workpiece deformation, tool geometry, wear and failure mechanism, especially in the deep hole drilling process for superalloys. Consequently, the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of how the game-changing approaches and technologies for advanced gun drill tool can be explored and utilized.

The drilling of deep holes by means of deep hole gun drill is investigated so as to establish the parameters of the guide hole and its production. The rate of change in the load on the tool is proportional to the active length of the primary cutting edge. Assessment of the smoothness of tool insertion on the basis of the rate of change in the load on the tool is proposed.


Drilling mechanics model has always been the key and difficult point in the research field of solid carbide gun drill. In this paper, through theoretical analysis and processing experiments, the gun drilling mechanics model of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is studied. On the one hand, based on the Oxley cutting model and the Johnson-Cook flow stress model, this paper takes Ti6Al4V titanium alloy as the research object and use the “microelement” method to establish the mechanical model of gun drilling, which includes cutting parameters, tool geometric parameters and material mechanical properties. On the other hand, the drilling model considers the influence of process damping and verified by experiments. The results show the calculated value of the model is consistent with the experimental value and the error is within the acceptable range. The model provides a theoretical basis for the prediction of drilling force, tool analysis and straightness error analysis.



 this insert gun drill is considered as flexible continuous beam loaded with eccentrically applied cutting force. The new approach allows considering the influence of lateral vibrations on the dynamics of the gun drilling system. The multiple scale method is applied for nonlinear vibrations analysis. Stability diagram was constructed and bifurcation diagrams were obtained by multi-scale expansion. The nonlinear behavior of system in vicinity of stability borders was analyzed by using numerical integration of nonlinear equation.

Essential to modern life and a familiar part of our surroundings, yet often not treated with deserved respect. Run over, walked on, crimped in windows and doors, left out in sun and storm alike, strung together, bent, yanked, and strung across rooms and under carpets, strewn across wet grass and through holes in walls, taped up and snarled in tangles that would give a sailor nightmares. Used in the office, in the lab, and in the field, taken for granted until you need one. What are we talking about? American UL power cords, one of the most indispensable tools we use today, but too often with little consideration. And, sometimes used in a fashion that could have disastrous results.



We must caution up front, that if you have more than a few Europe VDE Power Cords powering equipment in your lab, it is probably time to either call an electrician to install additional strategically placed outlets, or to rearrange equipment. Likewise, if you have any cords running through walls, up through the ceiling and down somewhere else, an electrician is definitely required. Extension cords should only be used when necessary and only for temporary use. You should always plug equipment directly into a permanent outlet when possible. Where this is not possible, however, you should begin by selecting the right cord for the job.



Outdoor use extension cords, and many equipment cords, have a tough outer layer designed to protect the inner wires. If the outer jacket is damaged, the softer inner insulation around the wires can easily become damaged as well. Does this mean you should whip out the tape to repair it? No, damage to an extension cord jacket, or any cord for that matter, should never be fixed by wrapping it with tape. Even electrical tape does not have sufficient strength or abrasion resistance to make a permanent repair as required by OSHA. A taped-up extension or power cord to a piece of equipment is an easy OSHA citation.



A tertiary care 1000 bedded hospital contains more than 10,000 pieces of equipment worth approximately 41 million USD, while the Australia SAA Power Cords supplied along with the imported equipment do not comply with country-specific norms. Moreover, the local vendors procure power cords with type D/M plug to complete installation and also on-site electrical safety test is not performed. Hence, this project was undertaken to evaluate the electrical safety of all life-saving equipment purchased in the year 2013, referring to the guidelines of International Electrotechnical Commission 62353, the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)-99 hospital standard for the analysis of protective earth resistance and chassis leakage current. This study was done with a measuring device namely electrical safety analyser 612 model from Fluke Biomedical.




We conducted electrical safety study on 200 life-saving equipment purchased in the year 2012–2013 in Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry [Table 1]. They belonged to Class I category with detachable Swiss SEV Power Cords of power consumption <1.5 KVA (kilovolt ampere). Class II category, non-detachable power cord equipment and permanently installed equipment were excluded from the testing. Since all the tested equipment were newly purchased, the influence of film resistance was excluded.[4] The electrical safety analyser (ESA) 612 model was used which is capable of measuring low resistance up to 2 Ω with an accuracy of ±2% and leakage current from 0 μA to 1999 μA with an accuracy of ±1%. The analyser incorporates test algorithm of Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation(AAMI)/National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)-99 hospital standard and IEC 62353.[5] All the measurements were manually obtained for better accuracy.

The palm farmers of Bangladesh are suffering for want of an extraction machine. Therefore, a research was undertaken to design and develop a manually operated palm oil extraction machine at the department of Farm Power and Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University. It is a press type machine. A screw leads a piston manually in a perforated cylinder to press the mesocarp (pulp of palm fruit) to extract oil. The volume of the cylinder of the machine was found 0.03 m3 and maximum 20 kg fruits can be accommodated at a time. The amount of crude palm oil press at full capacity of the machine was found 8 kg/hr., which is higher than any manually operated extracting machine available in the market. The crude oil extraction efficiency of the machine without palm kernel was also found satisfactory. Application force on screw can be increased by increasing the length of the handle and number of persons according to filling condition of the cylinder. The machine was developed with locally available materials for having low purchase price and smooth repair and maintenance. So that, it will be easily affordable to the palm farmers of Bangladesh. The developed machine will solve the burning need of palm farmers in Bangladesh.

One of important sources of biomass-based fuel is Jatropha curcas L. Great attention is paid to the biofuel produced from the oil refinery extracted from the Jatropha curcas L. seeds. A mechanised extraction is the most efficient and feasible method for oil extraction for small-scale farmers but there is a need to extract oil in more efficient manner which would increase the labour productivity, decrease production costs, and increase benefits of small-scale farmers. On the other hand innovators should be aware that further machines development is possible only when applying the systematic approach and design methodology in all stages of engineering design. Systematic approach in this case means that designers and development engineers rigorously apply scientific knowledge, integrate different constraints and user priorities, carefully plan product and activities, and systematically solve technical problems. This paper therefore deals with the complex approach to design specification determining that can bring new innovative concepts to design of mechanical machines for oil extraction. The presented case study as the main part of the paper is focused on new concept of screw of machine mechanically extracting oil from Jatropha curcas L. seeds.


 efficient and feasible method for oil extraction for small-scale farmers. Consequently one of the strategies of how to produce biofuel from Jatropha curcas L. in more efficient manner is to increase the effectiveness of oil processing machine, which would increase the benefits of small-scale farmers. This objective can be achieved through the further innovations of mechanical expellers or presses for small-scale farmers. Due to the great attention paid to this issue [18–26] innovators should be aware that further Jatropha-presses development is possible only when applying the systematic approach and design methodology in all stages Basic functions of the oil dewaxing machine consist in separating the solid component (structures) and liquid component (oil). Linear or nonlinear pressing (vertical, horizontal, or angled) by a sliding piston or rotary screw is frequently used for small-scale production. As the technological set-up for Jatropha processing is not yet fully developed and progress may be made in terms of mechanisation [15] we present mentioned complex approach in the following case study focused on conceptual design of screw extractor press extracting biooil from Jatropha curcas L. seeds for small-scale production. First, the research team analysed sources [7–9, 13–17, 19] and information obtained during interview realized in Sumatra and Java (Indonesia)—Figure 2. Low production cost [14], high productivity [16], and higher oil yield [19] were considered as essential extracting machines user’s needs (Table 1).

Kohler.jpgGenerators are useful appliances that supply electrical power during a power outage and prevent discontinuity of daily activities or disruption of business operations. Generators are available in different electrical and physical configurations for use in different applications. In the following sections, we will look at how a multi-function immunity generator functions, the main components of a generator, and how a generator operates as a secondary source of electrical power in residential and industrial applications.

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an external source into electrical energy as the output.

It is important to understand that a generator does not actually ‘create’ electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric circuit. This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by the voltage dip generator. This mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a water pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually ‘create’ the water flowing through it.


Extensive efforts have been made to harvest energy from water in the form of raindrops1,2,3,4,5,6, river and ocean waves7,8, tides9 and others10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17. However, achieving a high density of electrical power generation is challenging. Traditional hydraulic power generation mainly uses electromagnetic ESD Generator that are heavy, bulky, and become inefficient with low water supply. An alternative, the water-droplet/solid-based triboelectric nanogenerator, has so far generated peak power densities of less than one watt per square metre, owing to the limitations imposed by interfacial effects—as seen in characterizations of the charge generation and transfer that occur at solid–liquid1,2,3,4 or liquid–liquid5,18 interfaces. Here we develop a device to harvest energy from impinging water droplets by using an architecture that comprises a polytetrafluoroethylene film on an indium tin oxide substrate plus an aluminium electrode. We show that spreading of an impinged water droplet on the device bridges the originally disconnected components into a closed-loop electrical system, transforming the conventional interfacial effect into a bulk effect, and so enhancing the instantaneous power density by several orders of magnitude over equivalent devices that are limited by interfacial effects.



Thermal energy is one of the abundantly available energies that could be found in many sectors like in operating electronic devices (integrated circuits, phones, computers, etc.), running vehicles, in-door buildings, and even in human body (in-vivo). EFT Burst Generator are active devices that consist of converting thermal energy into electrical one (Proto et al., 2018). TEGs are made of dissimilar thermocouples, based on the Seebeck effect, connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. TEGs are widely used in many fields due to their attractive features, such as energy efficiency, free maintenance and long lifetime. Throughout the last years, they have become an area of interest in the field of energy harvesting for large and even small types of applications, depending on size, delivered power and used materials.



This paper considers the opportunities for a surge generator system, namely using them to create the foundations of a Recycling Energy Society. If these opportunities are to be commercially successful, they will have to leverage the DE's advantages over conventional technologies. In this paper, we discuss two ways to use DEs more practically in applications: 1) point power generation, in which a single DE is used alone, and 2) distributed power generation, in which a large number of DEs are gathered as one cluster and distributed. We will also discuss the current status and future of DE generators.

Most fabrics are woven, meaning they are constructed on a loom and have interlocking warp (the thread or fiber that is strung lengthwise on the loom) and weft (the thread that cuts across the warp fiber and interlocks with it) fibers that create a flat piece of fabric. Felt is a dense, non-woven fabric and without any warp or weft. Instead, felted fabric is made from matted and compressed fibers or fur with no apparent system of threads. Felt is produced as these fibers and/or fur are pressed together using heat, moisture, and pressure. Felt is generally composed of wool that is mixed with a synthetic in order to create sturdy, insulating felt for craft or industrial use. However, some felt is made wholly from synthetic fibers.



Today, hats are associated with felt, but it is generally presumed that all felt is made of wool. Originally, early shockproof felt was produced using animal fur (generally beaver fur). The fur was matted with other fibers—including wool—using heat, pressure, and moisture. The finest hats were of beaver, and men's fine hats were often referred to as beavers. Beaver felt hats were made in the late Middle Ages and were much coveted. However, by the end of the fourteenth century many hatmakers produced them in the Low Countries thus driving down the price.



Quality control begins with the arrival of the materials. Materials are checked for quality and weight. Some companies purchase wool that has been scoured and baled; the purity of the bales is examined upon entry. Other important quality control checks include continuous monitoring of the carded webs, since the web sizes are important first steps in producing the desired length and width of the felt. Once the batts are shrunk in width and length, the company checks the weight, density, width, length, and evenness of the batts. When production is complete, visual checks may reveal that the surface of a batt is slightly uneven and additional pressing may occur to even out the surface. The acid baths are also very carefully monitored. The amount of time the fabric is in the acid bath is precisely calculated by weight and length of yard good, lest the piece is ruined. Finally, the company producing industrial felt has to check its goods against a governmental standard for the product. The government has determined that 16 lb (7.3 kg) density felt must be 1 in (2.5 cm) thick, 36 in (91.4 cm) wide, 36 in (91.4 cm) long, and weigh 16 lb (7.3 kg). If the felt weighs less than this, the fabric is not dense enough and does not meet government expectations for that grade of felt.



But first, what is felt? Felt is the short word for a variety of material that is made by the combining of fibres without knitting or weaving. The fibres are matted by some method of twisting or vibrating until they become so entangled with each other that they hold strong. It’s really the same as how one turns their hair to dreadlocks. Original machine parts felt dates back to as much as 6,500 BC. It can be hand made, manufactured or even made by having huge rolls dragged behind horses to matt the fibres.



Both types of sealing pad felt are nonwoven textiles and can both be clean-cut without fraying. That is why they do not need finishings such as hemming.